機械外文文獻翻譯-包裝對食品發展的影響[中文3328字] 【中英文WORD】

機械外文文獻翻譯-包裝對食品發展的影響[中文3328字] 【中英文WORD】,中文3328字,中英文WORD,機械外文文獻翻譯-包裝對食品發展的影響[中文3328字],【中英文WORD】,機械,外文,文獻,翻譯,包裝,食品,發展,影響,中文,3328,中英文,WORD 件2：外文原文 FOOD PACKING TECHNOLOGY Packaging is critical to a consumer’s first impression of a product, communi- cating desirability, acceptability, healthy eating image etc. Food is available in a wide range of product and pack combinations that convey their own processed image perception to the consumer e.g. freshly packed/prepared, chilled, frozen, ultra-heat treated (UHT) aseptic, in-can sterilised and dried products. One of the most important quality attributes of food, affecting human sen- sory perception, is its flavour, i.e. taste and smell. Flavour can be significantly degraded by processing and/or extended storage. Other quality attributes that may also be affected include colour, texture and nutritional content. The quality of a food depends not only on the quality of raw ingredients, additives, methods of processing and packaging, but also on distribution and storage conditions encountered during its expected shelf life. Increasing competition amongst food producers, retailers and packaging suppliers; and quality audits of suppliers have resulted in significant improvements in food quality as well as a dramatic increase in the choice of packaged food. These improvements have also been aided by tighter temperature control in the cold chain and a more discerning consumer. One definition of shelf life is: the time during which a combination of food processing and packaging can maintain satisfactory eating quality under the particular system by which the food is distributed in the containers and the conditions at the point of sale. Shelf life can be used as a marketing tool for promoting the concept of freshness. Extended or long shelf life products also provide the consumer and/or retailer with the time convenience of product use as well as a reduced risk of food wastage. The subject of Packaged product quality and shelf life is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Packaging provides the consumer with important information about the product and, in many cases, use of the pack and/or product. These include facts such as weight, volume, ingredients, the manufacturer’s details, nutritional value, cooking and opening instructions. In addition to legal guidelines on the minimum size of lettering and numbers, there are definitions for the various types of product. Consumers are seeking more detailed nformation about products and, at the same time, many labels have become multilingual. Legibility of labels is an issue for the visually impaired and this is likely to become more important with an increasingly elderly population.. A major driver of food choice and packaging innovation is the consumer demand for convenience. There are many convenience attributes offered by modern packaging. These include ease of access and opening, disposal and handling, product visibility, resealability, microwaveability, prolonged shelf life etc. Demographic trends in the age profile of the UK and other advanced economies reveal a declining birth rate and rapid growth of a relatively afflu- ent elderly population. They, along with a more demanding young consumer, will require and expect improved pack functionality, such as ease of pack opening (The Institute of Grocery Distribution, IGD). There is a high cost to supplying and servicing the retailer’s shelf. Failure to stock a sufficient variety of product or replenish stock in time, especially for staple foods such as fresh milk, can lead to customer dissatisfaction and defection to a competitor’s store, where product availability is assured. Mod- ern distribution and packaging systems allow consumers to buy food when and where they want them. Consumer choice has expanded dramatically in recent years. In the UK, for example, between the 1960s and 1990s the number of product lines in the average supermarket rose from around 2000 to over 18 000. . Since the 1970s, food health and safety have become increasingly major concerns and drivers of food choices. Media attention has alerted consumers to a range of issues such as the use of chemical additives and food contamination incidents. These incidents have been both deliberate, by malicious tampering, and accidental, occurring during the production process. However, many consumers are not fully aware of the importance of packaging in maintaining food safety and quality. One effect has been the rapid introduction of tamper evident closures for many pre-packaged foods in order to not only protect the consumer but also the brand. Another impact has been to motivate consumers to give more attention to the criteria of freshness/shelf life, minimum processing and the products oringin.. Consumers have direct environmental impact through the way they purchase and the packaging waste they generate. Consumers purchase packaging as part of the product and, over the years, the weight of packaging has declined relative to that of the product contained. However, consumption patterns have generated larger volumes of packaging due to changing demo- graphics and lifestyles. It is the volume of packaging rather than the weight of packaging that is attracting critical public attention. In addition, the trend toward increased pre-packaged foods and food service packaging has increased the amount of plastics packaging waste entering the solid waste stream. Packaging has been a key to the evolution of modern fast-moving consu goods retailing that in turn has spurred on packaging developments to meet its requirements. The most significant development for the food packaging supply industries has been the emergence of large retail groups. These groups exert enormous influence and control over what is produced, how products are pre- sented and how they are distributed to stores. The large retailers handle a major share of the packaged grocery market and exert considerable influence on food manufacturers and associated packaging suppliers. It is, therefore, import ant for packaging suppliers to be fully aware of market demand and respond quickly to changes. In addition, the concentration of buyer power at the retail level means that manufacturers may have to modify their distribution and packaging operations in response to structural changes in retailing. Packaging for fast-moving consumer goods (f.m.c.g.) has been referred to as part of the food retail marketing mix and thus closely affects all the other marketing variables i.e. product, price, promotion, and place (Nickels & Jolsen, The discussion on packaging in the multiple food retail environment may be considered in terms of its role in brand competition and retail logistics. The role of packaging in brand competition. Packaging plays a vital role in food marketing representing a significant key to a brand’s success or mere sur- vival in a highly competitive marketplace. Packaging innovation and design are in the front line of competition between the brands of both major retailers and product manufacturers, having been driven in recent years by dramatic retail growth, intense industry competition and an increasingly demanding and sophisticated consumer. On an individual product/brand basis, success is dependent on the product manufacturer’s rapid innovative response to major trends. One of the most effective ways to respond is through distinctive pack- aging, and this has become one key factor in the success of a brand. The retail- ers’ own brand products compete intensely with manufacturers’ brands in virtually every product category. Brand differentiation can be enhanced by drive the growing niche market for biodegradable and compostable packaging. They are using it as a point of communication with their customers. Packaging is closely linked to advertising but it is far more focused than advertising because it presents the product to the consumer daily in the home and on the retail shelf. Merchandising displays that present the pack design in an attractive or interesting way and media advertising consistent with the pack’s image also serve to promote the brand. The brand owner is frequently responsible for the merchandising operation. A key to promotional activities is through effective use of packaging and there exist many kinds of on-pack promotions such as free extra product, money-off, special edition, new improved Bar code scanning information linked to the use of retailers’ loyalty card schemes has made a big impact on buying and marketing decision-making by retailers. Their task is to make better use of this information on con- sumer behaviour for promotional purposes and to build store brand loyalty. Retailers can also use this information to evaluate the effectiveness of new pack designs, on-pack promotions and the sales appeal of new products. The role of packaging in multiple retail logistics. There are tight constraints on physical distribution and in-store merchandising. The retailer is receptive to packaging that reduces operating costs, increases inventory turnover, trans- forms to attractive merchandising displays – such as pre-assembled or easy- to-assemble aisle displays – and satisfies logistics service levels (reliability, responsiveness and product availability). For example, combined transit and point-of-sale packaging saves store labour through faster shelf loading, pro- vides ease of access to product thereby obviating the need to use potentially dangerous unsafe cutting tools, and presents an opportunity for source reduce. The total distribution cost affects the total volume of demand through its influence on price (McKinnon, 1989). For some fast-moving commodity type products, such as pasteurised milk, the cost of distribution and retail mer- chandising is usually a sizeable proportion of total product cost representing up to 50 per cent or more of the sales price. The cost of packaging materials and containers also adds slightly to the cost but design of the optimal packaging system can significantly reduce cost in the retail distribution chain. The development of global food supply chains has meant that many points of production have located further away from the points of consump- tion, often resulting in higher distribution cost. Controlling distribution cost through improved operational efficiency in the supply chain is a key to competitive advantage for a retailer. The retailer must maximise operational efficiency in the distribution channel (West, 1989). The goal of distribution is to deliver the requisite level of service to customers at the least cost. The identification of the most cost-effective logistical packaging is becoming more crucial. Cost areas in distribution include storage, inventory, transport, administration and packaging. Storage, inventory, transport and store labour are major cost areas for the retailer while transport, storage and packaging are the main cost areas for the food manufacturer. The efficiency of the multiple retail food supply chain relies on close com- munication between retailers, food manufacturers and packaging suppliers. It also relies on accurate order forecasting of likely demand. Massive investment in information technology has enabled closer integration of the supply chain and, through electronic data interchange (EDI), has ensured that stock moves to stores on a just-in-time (JIT) basis, and is sold well before the expiry date. The bar code is a code that allows the industry-wide identification of retail product units by means of a unique reference number, the major application being the electronic point of sale (EPoS) system at the retail checkout. The use of the bar code for identification of primary, secondary and tertiary packaging has enabled efficient distribution management and stock control. 包裝對食品發展的影響 消費者對某個產品的第一印象來說包裝是至關重要的，包括溝通的可取性，可接受性，健康飲食形象等。食品能夠提供廣泛的產品和包裝組合，傳達自己加工的形象感知給消費者，例如新鮮包裝/準備，冷藏，冷凍，超高溫無菌，消毒（滅菌），烘干產品。 食物的最重要的質量屬性之一，是它的味道，其影響人類的感官知覺，即味覺和嗅覺。味道可以很大程度作退化的處理和/或擴展存儲。其他質量屬性，也可能受到影響，包括顏色，質地和營養成分。食品質量不僅取決于原材料，添加劑，加工和包裝的方法，而且其預期的貨架壽命（保質期）過程中遇到的運輸和儲存條件的質量。越來越多的競爭當中，食品生產商，零售商和供應商；和質量審核供應商有著顯著的提高食品質量以及急劇增加包裝食品的選擇。這些改進也得益于嚴格的冷藏鏈中的溫度控制和越來越挑剔的消費者。 保質期的一個定義是：在規定的貯存溫度條件下產品保持其質量和安全性的時間。 在保質期內，產品的生產企業對該產品質量符合有關標準或明示擔保的質量條件負責，銷售者可以放心銷售這些產品，消費者可以安全使用。 保質期不是識別食物等產品是否變質的唯一標準，可能由于存放方式，環境等變化物質的過早變質。所以食物等盡量在保質期未到期就及時食用。包裝產品的質量和保質期的主題是在第3章中詳細討論。 包裝為消費者提供有關產品的重要信息，在許多情況下，使用的包裝和/或產品，包括事實信息如重量，體積，配料，制造商的細節，營養價值，烹飪和開放的指示，除了法律準則的最小尺寸的文字和數字，有定義的各類產品。消費者尋求更詳細的產品信息，同時，許多標簽已經成為多語種。標簽的可讀性會是視覺發現的一個問題，這很可能成為一個對越來越多的老年人口越來越重要的問題。 食物的選擇和包裝創新的一個主要驅動力是為了方便消費者的需求。這里有許多方便的現代包裝所提供的屬性，這些措施包括易于接入和開放，處置和處理，產品的知名度，再密封性能，微波加熱性，延長保質期等。在英國和其他發達經濟體顯示出生率下降和快速增長的一個相對富裕的老人人口趨勢，伴隨著更加苛刻的年輕消費者，他們將要求和期望改進包裝的功能，如方便包開啟（百貨配送研究所，IGD）。 對零售商而言存在有一個高的成本，供應和服務的貨架體系。沒有儲備足夠的產品品種或及時補充庫存，特別是副食品，如鮮牛奶，可能導致客戶不滿和流失到競爭對手的商店，這正需要保證產品供應?，F代化的配送和包裝系統，允許消費者在購買食品時，他們希望在他們想任何時間地點都能享用。近幾年消費者的選擇已在急劇擴大。例如在英國，20世紀60年代和90年代之間在一般超市的產品線的數量從2000年左右上升到超過18000人（INCPEN）。 自20世紀70年代以來，食品衛生和安全問題已成為日益重要的關注和選擇食物的驅動力。媒體所關注的一系列問題，如使用化學添加劑和食品污染事故已警示消費者，這些事件都是故意的，惡意篡改的，和在生產過程意外發生的。然而，許多消費者都沒有充分認識到包裝在維護食品安全和質量過程中的重要作用。通過更改后的包裝產品迅速推廣，不僅為了保護消費者，而且為了品牌的效果，特別是許多預包裝食品。另一個影響一直激勵消費者注重保質保鮮、最小加工和對產品的原產地（OECD）的標準給予更多的關注。 消費者直接通過他們的購買方式和它們所產生的包裝廢棄物對環境的影響。消費者購買包裝作為產品的一部分，包裝的重量，多年來，所包含的產品，相對下降。然而，消費模式產生了更大容量的包裝，由于人口結構的變化和生活方式的變化，這些情況使得包裝體積，而不是包裝的重量，正成為吸引公眾關注的關鍵。此外，朝預包裝食品和食品包裝服務的發展趨勢，增加了塑料包裝廢棄物進入固體廢物流的金額。 零售商和制造商所使用的營銷策略之一，是對環境的兼容性。然而，消費者往往混淆或發現它很難界定什么是對環境負責的或友好的包裝。正是這種缺乏明確的含義，至今無法利用，致使零售商和包裝公司獲得競爭優勢。消費者需要明確信息來指導他們的行動，這樣不會使大多數的人差異化。包裝鏈的各部門負責闡述其職能和自身包裝的好處，廠家銷售好的包裝，他們的客戶，產品的廠家，但這樣的信息往往最終使顧客相對變少。 包裝在現代快速消費品零售上的發展，反過來成了促使以滿足其需求的演變的關鍵。最重要的發展為食品包裝行業已出現大型零售集團。這些群體產生巨大的影響和控制生產什么，如何介紹產品和它們是如何分配商店的。大型零售商處理的包裝食品雜貨市場的主要份額對食品生產廠家相關的包裝供應商施加相當大的影響。因此，重要的包裝供應商充分了解市場需求和快速響應變化。此外，買方力量集中在零售層面是指制造商可能需要修改它們的分布和包裝業務反應的結構變化的零售。 多種零售食品包裝的環境可以左右其在品牌競爭和零售物流中的作用。是食品銷售流通中一個重要的關鍵，一個品牌的成功，不僅僅是生存在一個高度競爭的市場，包裝起著至關重要的作用。包裝設計創新存在于一線產品之間的競爭，存在于一線品牌主要零售商和產品制造商中，近年來社會推動使零售增長，行業激烈的競爭和日益復雜的消費者都使零售競爭激烈。在個人品牌/產品的基礎上，產品的成功取決于產品制造商的快速的創新。一個最有效的回應方式是通過獨特的包裝，這已經成為一個品牌成功關鍵因素。零售商自行設計品牌產品與制造商的品牌在幾乎每一個產品類別競爭激烈。品牌差異化可以提高創新的包裝設計，賦予審美和/或功能屬性。 包裝在預測零售商的形象，贏得競爭優勢方面起著重要的支撐作用。一般零售商自己的品牌形象的目的是積極的消息，如高品質的，健康的飲食，新鮮，環保意識還是物有所值的整體。例如，零售商是熱衷于環保意識，推動部分為可生物降解、可堆肥包裝成長的利基市場，他們正在使用它作為與客戶的溝通點。 包裝與廣告是密切相關的，但它遠遠超過了廣告，重點是因為它每天在家里和在零售貨架上向消費者介紹產品。商品顯示，目前用一個有吸引力的或有趣的方式和媒體廣告與包裝的形象一致的包裝設計也有利于促進品牌。品牌的擁有者是經常負責采購操作，促銷活動的關鍵是通過利用有效的包裝，存在多種返還優惠的方式，如免費額外的產品，退返現金，特別版，新的改進產品，鋁箔新鮮包裝。 零售商使用的條形碼掃描信息，然后購買和銷售的決策，對其產生了很大的影響。他們的任務是更好地利用這一信息消費行為為目的，并建立品牌忠誠度。零售商還可以使用此信息來評估新的包裝設計有效性，返還促銷和新產品銷售。 包裝的作用在多個零售物流配送和店內商品有嚴格的限制。零售商是接受包裝，降低經營成本，增加存貨周轉率，轉化為吸引力商品顯示器 - 如預組裝或易于裝配顯示 - 滿足物流服務水平（可靠性，響應速度和產品的可用性）。例如，聯合運輸銷售點包裝節省商店勞動力通過更快貨架載荷，從而避免需要使用有潛在危險的不安全的切割工具，提供方便的機會，并減少了污染源的可能。 總經銷成本影響，通過對價格的影響（麥金農，1989）的需求總量。對于一些快速移動商品型產品，如巴氏殺菌奶，分銷及零售商品成本產品總成本占高達50％或更多的銷售價格通常是一個相當大的比例。包裝材料和容器還增加了成本而設計出最佳包裝系統可以大大降低在零售連鎖配送的成本。發展全球食品供應鏈意味著，許多生產點位置遠離消費點，往往導致配送成本較高。 通過改善供應鏈運作效率，進行分銷成本控制是一個零售商競爭優勢關鍵。零售商必須最大限度地發揮在分銷渠道（西，1989年）的運作效率。分配目標是以最少的成本為客戶提供必要的服務水平，最具成本效益后勤包裝標識變得更加重要。配送成本領域，包括倉儲，庫存，運輸，管理包裝；倉儲，庫存，運輸和儲存勞動是零售商的主要成本區而運輸，倉儲包裝食品制造商主要成本區。 多種零售食品供應鏈效率依賴于零售商，食品生產商和包裝供應商之間密切溝通。它還依賴于準確的訂單預測可能的市場需求。信息技術大規模投資，使更緊密的供應鏈的整合，并通過電子數據交換（EDI），確保股票上剛剛在實時（JIT）的基礎上移動商店，出售屆滿前條形碼是一個代碼，使全行業的零售產品單位鑒定通過一個獨特的參考號碼，主要應用在零售結帳電子銷售系統（EPOS）。小學，中學和大專院校包裝使用鑒定的條形碼，使有效的分配管理和庫存控制。 附件2：外文原文 FOOD PACKING TECHNOLOGY Packaging is critical to a consumer’s first impression of a product, communi- cating desirability, acceptability, healthy eating image etc. Food is available in a wide range of product and pack combinations that convey their own processed image perception to the consumer e.g. freshly packed/prepared, chilled, frozen, ultra-heat treated (UHT) aseptic, in-can sterilised and dried products. One of the most important quality attributes of food, affecting human sen- sory perception, is its flavour, i.e. taste and smell. Flavour can be significantly degraded by processing and/or extended storage. Other quality attributes that may also be affected include colour, texture and nutritional content. The quality of a food depends not only on the quality of raw ingredients, additives, methods of processing and packaging, but also on distribution and storage conditions encountered during its expected shelf life. Increasing competition amongst food producers, retailers and packaging suppliers; and quality audits of suppliers have resulted in significant improvements in food quality as well as a dramatic increase in the choice of packaged food. These improvements have also been aided by tighter temperature control in the cold chain and a more discerning consumer. One definition of shelf life is: the time during which a combination of food processing and packaging can maintain satisfactory eating quality under the particular system by which the food is distributed in the containers and the conditions at the point of sale. Shelf life can be used as a marketing tool for promoting the concept of freshness. Extended or long shelf life products also provide the consumer and/or retailer with the time convenience of product use as well as a reduced risk of food wastage. The subject of Packaged product quality and shelf life is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Packaging provides the consumer with important information about the product and, in many cases, use of the pack and/or product. These include facts such as weight, volume, ingredients, the manufacturer’s details, nutritional value, cooking and opening instructions. In addition to legal guidelines on the minimum size of lettering and numbers, there are definitions for the various types of product. Consumers are seeking more detailed nformation about products and, at the same time, many labels have become multilingual. Legibility of labels is an issue for the visually impaired and this is likely to become more important with an increasingly elderly population.. A major driver of food choice and packaging innovation is the consumer demand for convenience. There are many convenience attributes offered by modern packaging. These include ease of access and opening, disposal and handling, product visibility, resealability, microwaveability, prolonged shelf life etc. Demographic trends in the age profile of the UK and other advanced economies reveal a declining birth rate and rapid growth of a relatively afflu- ent elderly population. They, along with a more demanding young consumer, will require and expect improved pack functionality, such as ease of pack opening (The Institute of Grocery Distribution, IGD). There is a high cost to supplying and servicing the retailer’s shelf. Failure to stock a sufficient variety of product or replenish stock in time, especially for staple foods such as fresh milk, can lead to customer dissatisfaction and defection to a competitor’s store, where product availability is assured. Mod- ern distribution and packaging systems allow consumers to buy food when and where they want them. Consumer choice has expanded dramatically in recent years. In the UK, for example, between the 1960s and 1990s the number of product lines in the average supermarket rose from around 2000 to over 18 000. . Since the 1970s, food health and safety have become increasingly major concerns and drivers of food choices. Media attention has alerted consumers to a range of issues such as the use of chemical additives and food contamination incidents. These incidents have been both deliberate, by malicious tampering, and accidental, occurring during the production process. However, many consumers are not fully aware of the importance of packaging in maintaining food safety and quality. One effect has been the rapid introduction of tamper evident closures for many pre-packaged foods in order to not only protect the consumer but also the brand. Another impact has been to motivate consumers to give more attention to the criteria of freshness/shelf life, minimum processing and the products oringin.. Consumers have direct environmental impact through the way they purchase and the packaging waste they generate. Consumers purchase packaging as part of the product and, over the years, the weight of packaging has declined relative to that of the product contained. However, consumption patterns have generated larger volumes of packaging due to changing demo- graphics and lifestyles. It is the volume of packaging rather than the weight of packaging that is attracting critical public attention. In addition, the trend toward increased pre-packaged foods and food service packaging has increased the amount of plastics packaging waste entering the solid waste stream. Packaging has been a key to the evolution of modern fast-moving consu goods retailing that in turn has spurred on packaging developments to meet its requirements. The most significant development for the food packaging supply industries has been the emergence of large retail groups. These groups exert enormous influence and control over what is produced, how products are pre- sented and how they are distributed to stores. The large retailers handle a major share of the packaged grocery market and exert considerable influence on food manufacturers and associated packaging suppliers. It is, therefore, import ant for packaging suppliers to be fully aware of market demand and respond quickly to changes. In addition, the concentration of buyer power at the retail level means that manufacturers may have to modify their distribution and packaging operations in response to structural changes in retailing. Packaging for fast-moving consumer goods (f.m.c.g.) has been referred to as part of the food retail marketing mix and thus closely affects all the other marketing variables i.e. product, price, promotion, and place (Nickels & Jolsen, The discussion on packaging in the multiple food retail environment may be considered in terms of its role in brand competition and retail logistics. The role of packaging in brand competition. Packaging plays a vital role in food marketing representing a significant key to a brand’s success or mere sur- vival in a highly competitive marketplace. Packaging innovation and design are in the front line of competition between the brands of both major retailers and product manufacturers, having been driven in recent years by dramatic retail growth, intense industry competition and an increasingly demanding and sophisticated consumer. On an individual product/brand basis, success is dependent on the product manufacturer’s rapid innovative response to major trends. One of the most effective ways to respond is through distinctive pack- aging, and this has become one key factor in the success of a brand. The retail- ers’ own brand products compete intensely with manufacturers’ brands in virtually every product category. Brand differentiation can be enhanced by drive the growing niche market for biodegradable and compostable packaging. They are using it as a point of communication with their customers. Packaging is closely linked to advertising but it is far more focused than advertising because it presents the product to the consumer daily in the home and on the retail shelf. Merchandising displays that present the pack design in an attractive or interesting way and media advertising consistent with the pack’s image also serve to promote the brand. The brand owner is frequently responsible for the merchandising operation. A key to promotional activities is through effective use of packaging and there exist many kinds of on-pack promotions such as free extra product, money-off, special edition, new improved Bar code scanning information linked to the use of retailers’ loyalty card schemes has made a big impact on buying and marketing decision-making by retailers. Their task is to make better use of this information on con- sumer behaviour for promotional purposes and to build store brand loyalty. Retailers can also use this information to evaluate the effectiveness of new pack designs, on-pack promotions and the sales appeal of new products. The role of packaging in multiple retail logistics. There are tight constraints on physical distribution and in-store merchandising. The retailer is receptive to packaging that reduces operating costs, increases inventory turnover, trans- forms to attractive merchandising displays – such as pre-assembled or easy- to-assemble aisle displays – and satisfies logistics service levels (reliability, responsiveness and product availability). For example, combined transit and point-of-sale packaging saves store labour through faster shelf loading, pro- vides ease of access to product thereby obviating the need to use potentially dangerous unsafe cutting tools, and presents an opportunity for source reduce. The total distribution cost affects the total volume of demand through its influence on price (McKinnon, 1989). For some fast-moving commodity type products, such as pasteurised milk, the cost of distribution and retail mer- chandising is usually a sizeable proportion of total product cost representing up to 50 per cent or more of the sales price. The cost of packaging materials and containers also adds slightly to the cost but design of the optimal packaging system can significantly reduce cost in the retail distribution chain. The development of global food supply chains has meant that many points of production have located further away from the points of consump- tion, often resulting in higher distribution cost. Controlling distribution cost through improved operational efficiency in the supply chain is a key to competitive advantage for a retailer. The retailer must maximise operational efficiency in the distribution channel (West, 1989). The goal of distribution is to deliver the requisite level of service to customers at the least cost. The identification of the most cost-effective logistical packaging is becoming more crucial. Cost areas in distribution include storage, inventory, transport, administration and packaging. Storage, inventory, transport and store labour are major cost areas for the retailer while transport, storage and packaging are the main cost areas for the food manufacturer. The efficiency of the multiple retail food supply chain relies on close com- munication between retailers, food manufacturers and packaging suppliers. It also relies on accurate order forecasting of likely demand. Massive investment in information technology has enabled closer integration of the supply chain and, through electronic data interchange (EDI), has ensured that stock moves to stores on a just-in-time (JIT) basis, and is sold well before the expiry date. The bar code is a code that allows the industry-wide identification of retail product units by means of a unique reference number, the major application being the electronic point of sale (EPoS) system at the retail checkout. The use of the bar code for identification of primary, secondary and tertiary packaging has enabled efficient distribution management and stock control.